THE HISTORY OF NICARAGUA Clifford L. Staten 1517–1529  Alvaro de Saavedra Ceron surveys the area and is the first to discuss the possibility of a canal between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Ocean 1522 Gil Gonzalez Davila explores Nicaragua 1524 Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba explores Nicaragua and founds the cities of Leon and Granada 1527 Pedrarias appointed first Governor of Nicaragua 1539 Spanish discover that Lake Nicaragua spills into the San Juan River which empties into the Caribbean Sea 1543 Spain reorganizes its colonies in the Americas; Nicaragua becomes part of the Audiencia de los Confines covering most of Central America 1567 Phillip II abandons the idea of a canal between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Ocean 1570 Nicaragua becomes part of the Audiencia de la Guatemala 1610 Leon destroyed when the volcano Momotombo erupts; city is rebuilt to the west of the original site 1633 Bluefields established on the Mosquito Coast 1664, 1666 English buccaneers led by Henry Morgan attack and loot Granada 1678 British establish a protectorate over the Mosquito Coast and create the Miskito Kingdom 1735 Charles Marie de la Condamine suggests building a canal between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Ocean 1786 British agree to leave the Mosquito Coast 1788 Count Louis-Hector de Segur suggests building a canal between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Ocean 1791 Martin de Labastide suggests building a canal between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Ocean 1804 Alexander von Humbolt suggests building a canal between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Ocean 1811 First Nicaraguan uprising against Spain occurs in city of Rivas 1821 Central America gains independence from Spain; Nicaragua becomes part of independent Mexico 1823 Central America declares its independence from Mexico and forms the United Provinces of Central America 1838 Nicaragua becomes an independent country 1847 British re-establish the Mosquito Coast as a protectorate 1848 British seize San Juan del Norte and rename the port city Greytown 1849 United States negotiates commercial treaty with Nicaragua 1850 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty confirmed; British-U.S. cooperation for any canal built across Central America 1851 Cornelius Vanderbilt establishes a cross-isthmus transit route consisting of a steamship route up the San Juan River and into Lake Nicaragua followed by a brief overland trip from Rivas to the Pacific Ocean 1854 Fruto Chamorro Perez becomes the first President of the Republic of Nicaragua 1855–1856 William Walker, supported by the Liberal Party, arrives in Nicaragua, takes over the city of Granada, and becomes president 1857 William Walker is ousted by an army of both the Conservative and Liberal Parties 1860 William Walker is captured and executed 1870s Coffee becomes the principle crop in Nicaragua and foreign investment is encouraged 1893 Liberal revolt brings Jose Santos Zelaya to power 1894 Last British intervention on Mosquito Coast 1902 United States decides to build a cross-isthmus canal in Panama rather than Nicaragua 1909 Zelaya is overthrown by the conservatives with the support of the United States 1912–1925 U.S. military forces occupy Nicaragua 1926–1933 U.S. military forces reoccupy Nicaragua 1927–1933 Augusto Cesar Sandino leads Nicaraguan nationalists against U.S. occupation army 1932 Earthquake destroys Managua 1933 Anastasio Somoza Garcıa named director of the National Guard; U.S. Marines withdraw from country; Sandino agrees to peace settlement 1934 Somoza assassinates Sandino 1936 Somoza with the support of the Guard becomes president of Nicaragua 1955 Cotton becomes the primary export of the country 1956 Anastasio Somoza Garcıa is assassinated; Luis Somoza Debayle becomes president 1959 Fidel Castro comes to power in Cuba 1961 Nicaragua supports U.S. invasion at the Bay of Pigs, Cuba 1963 First communiques signed by the Sandinista Front for National Liberation (FSLN) are issued 1972 Earthquake devastates Managua; corruption by Anastasio Somoza Debayle associated with the relief effort turns many elites and middle class against Somoza 1976 Carlos Fonseca, founder of the FSLN, is killed 1978 Assassination of Pedro Joaquın Chamorro, leader of the conservative opposition to Somoza; opposition to Somoza expands dramatically; United States suspends military support to Somoza 1979 Sandinistas lead a broad-based coalition of forces which overthrows the Somoza government and comes to power; revolutionary junta established consisting of three Sandinistas, Violeta Chamorro, and businessman Alfonso Robelo, but in reality it was the nine-member Sandinista National Directorate that held power in the country 1979–1981 Contra resistance forces formed from former National Guardsmen in Honduras; President Reagan assists in organizing and arming them 1981–1988 Reagan administration wages a ‘‘low-intensity’’ war against the Sandinistas 1982 Boland Amendment to the 1973 War Powers Act prohibits U.S. funds from being used to overthrow government of Nicaragua; Nicaragua unable to get loans from World Bank due to U.S. pressure 1984 CIA places mines in harbor at Corinto and damages at least 9 ships; CIA carries out commando raids against Sandinista targets; Daniel Ortega elected as president of Nicaragua 1985 United States enforces full trade embargo against Nicaragua 1986 World Court condemns the mining of Nicaraguan harbors as a violation of international law and fines the United States; President Reagan ignores the court’s decision; United States supplies contra forces with land mines and Stinger anti-aircraft missiles; CIA supply plane flown by Eugene Hasenfus shot down and provides evidence of extensive CIA supply network to the contras; Hasenfus publicly revealed that, contrary to the Boland Amendment, the United States was supplying military aid to the contras in an attempt to overthrow the Sandinista government; precipitates ‘‘Iran-contra scandal’’ in Washington 1990 Violeta Chamorro, wife of assassinated Pedro Joaquın Chamorro, defeats Ortega in the presidential election 1992 Peace accords implemented in Nicaragua 1996 Arnoldo Aleman Lacayo elected as president 1998 Hurricane Mitch destroys much of infrastructure of the country and 10,000 people die 2002 Enrique Bola~nos Geyer elected as president 2004 Central American Free Trade Agreement implemented 2006 Daniel Ortega elected as president for the second time 2008 Sandinistas dominate the municipal elections, many of the Sandinista mayors who were elected are critics of Daniel Ortega Cinema and Sandanistas Jonathan Buchsbaum The FSLN composed slogans for each year that they were in power. Early slogans included: 1979: Year of Liberation 1980: Year of Literacy 1981: Year of Defense and Production 1982: Year of Unity against the Aggression 1983: Year of Struggle for Peace and Sovereignty The Real Contra War Timonthy Brown PRE-COLUMBIAN AND SPANISH COLONIAL PERIOD 2000 B.C. Chibcha migration from South America begins. 900-1523 A.D. Nahua conquest and Chibcha-Nahua confhcts. 1523-26 Spanish Conquest. 1523-1821 Spanish Colonial Period and Indian Wars. PRE-SOMOZA PATRIARCHAL PERIOD, 1821-1936 1821 Independence from Spain. 1821-1950 Patriarchy-Indian Wars. SOMOZA DYNASTY, 1936-1979 1936-56 Anastacio Somoza Garcia holds power. Assassinated in 1956. 1956-67 Luis Somoza Debayle holds power. Dies of heart attack. 1967-79 Anastacio Somoza Debayle holds power. W e d in ambush in Paraguay. Sandinistas claim credit. ANTI-SOMOZA WAR PERIOD, 1958-JULY 1979 1944-58 1959-60 1961 1963 1963-77 1976 1 9 77-79 1978-79 May 1979 July 1979 Multiple anti-Somoza efforts by various groups. Cuban Revolution. Various Nicaraguan revolutionaries vie for Castro's support. Sandinistas succeed. FSLN named in Havana. Its guerrilla phase begms. Noel Guerrero, original Sandinista leader, causes Bocaycito disaster. Repeated FSLN guerrilla efforts, clandestine organizing phase. Carlos Fonseca Arnador, FSLN leader, killed at Zinica in ambush. U.S. turns against Somoza, FSLN/Patriarchy united front emerges. Arms shipments to FSLN from Cuba via Panama begin. Massive arms flow from Cuba. U.S. acquiesces. FSLN enters large combat unit phase. Castro appoints Nine Comandantes in Havana. Preparations for Contra War by Sandinista guerrillas begin inside Sandinista ranks. Somoza flees, Sandinistas take power. Socialist Revolution begins. CONTRA WAR PERIOD, MAY 1979-1996 May 1979 First MILPAS begin to organize. Aug. 1979 First armed clash of Contra War near El Chipote. 1979-82 Unknown MILPAS war inside Nicaragua. Guardia exiles still outside. 1980 First U.S./Argentine involvement in covert aid to Guardia exiles. 1982 U.S./Argentine cover aid unites Legi6n 15 de Septiembre and MILPAS; combined unit becomes Fuerza Democratica Nicaraguense (Contras). 1988 Final cutoff of U.S. lethal aid to Contras. 1990 Coalition wins national election. Sandinista Revolution ends. 1990-96 Conservative-Sandirusta CO-governmentR. e-Contra silent war. 1996 Liberals win national election. Contras legitimized. 1 8 1 0 September 1 6 Parish priest Miguel Hidalgo declares El Grito de Dolores, summoning his native and mixed-blood M exican congregation to rise up against their Spanish overlords, and initiating the War for Independence. 1 82 1 February 24 The Plan de Iguala establishes Mexico's independence from Spain. 1 854 March Liberal reformers in Mexico publish the Plan de Ayutla, initating their struggle against the conservatives who control the nation. 1 855 August 1 7 Mexican dictator General Antonio Lopez Santa Anna flees the country for Venezuala. Shortly afterwards, liberals such as Ignacio Comonfort and Benito Juarez establish a liberal government. 1 857 February 5 The liberal constitution is promulgated in Mexico. Among other reforms, this document wrests a great deal of power away from the Catholic Church. 1 86 2 May 5 Oaxacan Brigadier General Porfirio Diaz beats back an invasion by the French army. This day is still celebrated in Mexico as the Cinco de Mayo . 1 863 Margarita Magan, Ricardo's mother, meets Teodoro Flores while c arrying ammunition to Mexican soldiers at the siege of Puebta. Teodoro may be a pure blooded Zapotec Indian. Margarita has mixed Spanish/lndian blood. 1 864 Librado Rivera is born in the municipality of Rayon, San Luis Potosi, son of a small lanaownmg l-anUt:l. 1 869 April 20 Chavez Lopez issues manifesto calling for the peasants to rise up against the government, the church, and the plantation owners and expropriate the lands. September 1 Chavez Lopez is executed by firing squad, crying " Long live socialism" as the federal troops discharge their ammunition. 1 87 1 Jesus Flores Magan is born. 1 87 2 July 18 Mexican President Benito Juarez dies of a heart attack 1 87 3 September 1 6 Ricardo Flores Magan is born in San Antonio Eloxochitlan, district ofTeotitIan, Oaxaca on Mexican Independence Day. October 4 Francisco I . Madero is born into a wealthy landowning family in the Mexican state Coahuila. 1 87 6 October 1 6 Partirio Diaz enters Mexico City after overthrowing President Lerdo . He assumes the head of a provisional government with the promise of " Effective Suffrage and No-Reelection." 1 87 7 APril 13 Enrique Flores Magan is born. 1 87 9 Uprising in Veracruz against Diaz is suppressed with great violence. 1 880 M anuel Gonzalez is elected president, but Diaz is still effectively in control. 1 88 2 Praxedis G. (􀒰uerrero is born to a rich landowning family in the Leon of district Guanajuato. Juan Sarabia is born in San Luis Potosi the son of a musician. 1 883 Ricardo Flores Mag6n starts school at the EscueIa Nacional Primaria in Mexico City, where his family has moved. 1 884 Diaz is reelected. 1 888 Librado Rivera graduates with honors from the Escuela Normal in San Luis Potosi and becomes the director of the El Montecillo School in the same town . Diaz changes the constitution to enable him to stay in the presidency for more than ulle lerm. He is re-eiected. 1 892 May 1 6 Ricardo Flores Magan, along with his brothers Jesus and Enrique, now at the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria, joins in a demonstration against the Diaz dictatorship and is arrested. The people of Mexico protest against the arrests, saving him and many others from execution . Ricardo goes free after a short detention. His brother Jesus is sentenced to five months for sedition in Belen prison. Diaz re-elected . 1 893 February Flores Magan joins the staff of the opposition newspaper El Democrata . The paper lasts until April when the police surround Flores Magan's house to arrest him and other comrades working on the paper. However, he escapes by jumping from a window. The rest of the staff is taken. Flores Magan hides with friends for three months before returning to school. Teodoro Flores dies . 1 894 EI Democrata starts again with Flores Magan as a contributor. After a few weeks, the government buys out the paper. 1 ftt"u:. Librado Rivera returns to the Escuela Normal in San Luis Potosi where he teaches history and geography. Soon he becomes its director. One of his students is Antonio 1. Villarreal. Flores Mag6n is expelled from school because of his political activities. 1 899 Juan Sarabia, with the financial support of Camilo Arriaga, publishes a dissident newspaper entitled EI Democrata in San Luis Potosi. 1 900 Around the turn of the century, Flores Mag6n reads extensively the works of anarchist writers such as Bakunin, Kropotkin, Malatesta, Reclus, Stirner, Proudhon; also Karl Marx. In San Luis Potosi, El Democrata is closed. Juan Sarabia founds another newspaper, El Porvenir ("The Future "). August 7 Ricardo Flores Mag6n founds Regeneraci6n with his brother Jesus and Antonio Horcasitas, both law school graduates. A group that includes Camilo Arriaga, Librado Rivera, and Juan Sarabia founds the liberal club Ponciano Arriaga in San Luis PotosI. Sarabia is the club's secretary and the editor of its newspaper Renacimiento . (" Rebirth").The liberal movement club intends to fight against the Catholic Church's influence over the government. By the end of the year, more than one hundred liberal clubs are active all over Mexico. Diaz is reelected. December 31 Regeneraci6n changes its ideological position from being a pure law journal to that of an "Independent Journal of Combat." 1 90 1 February 5-1 4. The first congress of Liberal clubs is held in the Teatro de la Paz , San Luis Potosi. Armed soldiers patrol the streets outside . While most of the delegates are content to attack only the clergy, Ricardo Flores Magan, representing the newspaper Regeneracion, gives a speech denouncing the Diaz administration as "a den of thieves." It is here that Flores Magan first meets Librado Rivera and other prominent liberals. May 23 Ricardo and Jesus Flores Magan are arrested and sentenced to twelve months in Belen prison for "insulting the president ." However, Regeneracfon continues clandestinely with the aid of Enrique Flores Magan and Eugenio Arnoux . Flores Magan continues to write articles for the paper from his prison cell. A group of sympathetic prisoners smuggles them out . June Diario del JIugar is suppressed because it printed the banned issue of Regeneracion . June 14 Margarita Magan dics. Despite their pleas, Ricardo and his brother are refused a final visit to her. Repression of the Club Liberal de Lampazos in Nuevo Leon. August 22 Antonio Diaz Soto y Gama sent to Belen for making a speech criticizing Diaz . October Diaz informs Ricardo Flores Magan that if he does not stop publishing Regeneracion, he will be shot. Flores Magan, knowing his precarious position, decides to suspend publication for a while. The government begins " gem:rai campaign of repression agall1st all hberal clu bs and the opposition press. October 7 Last issue of Regeneracion. The government closes down its press. 1 902 January 24 Twelve days before the proposed second Liberal Congress, the army breaks up a meeting of the Liberal Club Ponciano Arriaga in San Luis Potosi. Juan Sarabia and Librado Rivera are arrested and imprisoned for twelve months. April 6 Juan Sarabia, Camilo Arriaga, and Librado Rivera, jailed in San Luis Potosi, found the newspaper, El Demofilo . April 30 Ricardo and Jesus Flores Magan are released from prison. Jesus leaves the struggle against Diaz and opens a law office in Mexico City. July 1 6 Ricardo and Enrique Flores Magan, along with Santiago de la Hoz, take over the satirical anti-Diaz newspaper El Hijo del Ahuizote from D aniel Cabrera.The anti-Diaz weekly Vesper, edited by Juana B. Guiterrez de Mendoz and Elisa Acuiia, publishes The Conquest of Bread by Peter Kropotkin in booklet form at the request of Flores Magan. July 30 The press of El Demofilo is confiscated August 10 El Demofilo disappears. September 12 The editorial staff of El Hijo del Ahuizote is arrested and the presses and office equipment are confiscated. Ricardo and Enrique Flores Magan are held incommunicado for thirty-four days in the military prison of 􀊶"nti,,􀊷n 1'btplo1co hefore being: sentenced bv a military tribunal to four months each " for insulting the army." September 19 Ubrado Rivera is released from prison in San Luis Potosi. November 23 El Hijo del Ahuizote reappears under the direction of Juan Sarabia. Antonio Diaz Soto y Gama, Enrique Flores Magon, Alfonso Cravioto , Ubrado Rivera, and others contribute. 1 903 January 23 Ricardo and Enrique Flores Magan are released from prison . They resume their work on El Hijo delAhuizote. Diaz tries to buy Ricardo off by offering him a position in the government, but Ricardo declines. El Hijo del Ahuizote is repressed again. Nevertheless, Federico Perez Fernandez continues to publish it. February 5 Ricardo and Enrique Flores Magan, along with others, reorganize the Confederation of Uberal Clubs of the Republic . February 5 Ricardo and the other editors of El Hijo del Ahuizote drape a banner saying "LA CONSTITUCION HA MUERTO " from the balcony of the newspaper's office. March Ricardo and Enrique Flores Magan and others found the Club Uberal Rendencion. He and Santiago de la Hoz found the newspaper Excelsior. April 2 Troops under the command of General Reyes shoot down protesters in Monterey, Nuevo Leon demonstrating against the reelection of Reyes as state governor. April 2 Ricardo and Enrique Flores Magan, along with members of the Club Liberal Rendencion march to Diaz's palace carrying signs saying " NO REELECTION." Only the crowds around them save them from execution. April 1 6 The police invade the offices of El Hijo delAhuizote for the second time . As before, all the equipment is taken. Ricardo and Enrique Flores Magan Librado Rivera, and seven others are arrested for " ridiculing public officials ." A special law is passed forbidding anyone from publishing anything by the April 1 6 convicts. At this time , the paper had a circulation of about 24,000. May-lJecember El Padre del Ahuizote, El Nieto del Ahuizote, and other newspapers are founded and quickly repressed by the government. May Alfonso Cravioto and others found El Colmilla Publico . June 9 The Mexican Supreme Court bans the publication of any article by the Flores Magan brothers. July Librado Rivera released from prison. October Ricardo and Enrique Flores Magan are released from Belen prison. During their stay, they were held incommunicado for two and a half months. The dissidents are warned that they will not exit prison alive again. Realizing it is no longer practical to stay in Mexico , they decide to continue the struggle from the U . S . 1 904 January 4 Santiago de la Hoz and Ricardo and Enrique Flores Mag6n arrive in Laredo , Texas almost penniless. Later, they are joined by Librado Rivera, Antonio I. Villarreal, ]uan Sarabia, and Rosalio Bustamente . All find jobs as laborers . March 22 Santiago de la Hoz drowns while swimming in the Rio Bravo. September 22 Praxedis G. Guerrero leaves Mexico and finds work in the u.s. November 5 Regeneracion reappears i n San Antonio , Texas, where Ricardo now lives. Enrique , ]uan Sarabia, and Manuel Sarabia help publish the paper. December A thug employed by Diaz enters Ricardo 's home and attempts to stab him 111 the back. This attempted assassination is averted by the quick action of Enrique, who throws the man out of the house. Despite this fact, police arrest Enrique and fine him $40 for " breaking the peace ." The would-be assassin goes free . 1 905 February 2 Regeneracion moves to St. Louis, Missouri and resumes publication, this time with the help of Librado Rivera. Ricardo starts to attend meetings organized by Emma Goldman . He also becomes friendly with Florencio Bazora, a former comrade of Italian anarchist Errico Malatesta. Diaz's dictatorship begins to monitor Ricardo's mail with the help of the U . S . postal authorities . February 2 7 Regeneraci6n resumes publication from Saint Louis. August Antonio de P. Araujo, Tomas R. Espinoza and Lazaro Puente found the Liberal Club Libertad in Douglas, Arizona, together with a newspaper El Democrata. September The circulation of Regeneraci6n is 20,000 and climbing, mainly in Mexico . September 28 The Junta Organizadora del Partido Liberal Mexicano (PLM) is formed with Ricardo as President,Juan Sarabia as Vice-President, Antonio 1. "' T! 11 ___ 􀁲􀁳1 􀁰􀁱 co 􀁸􀁹_􀁸""'􀁺_"T "I:' ...... _.: _" .a. .... C' 􀁴""'£:l. ''' '''''''''''''L1o_ .... ..... ,..1 T 􀁱h __ .... 1A Di"lTP""" 1\;[0)..." 1"1",,,1 􀁳'l-r'l_ • ..L"''"''􀁴 • ..L ....... 􀁴 .... ........... ...... _ ..L _ "' .......... ) , ........... ........ ... 􀁲 __ _ .... 􀁵 􀁶 ____ , __ __ ____ _ • ___ _ __ __ _ J _ _ _ _ 􀁷 _ bia, and Rosalio Bustamante as committee men. The motto o f the Junta is "Reform, Liberty and Justice." October Diaz sends Manuel Esperon de la Flor, a Mexican government official and landowner, to the U.S. to bring a charge of criminal libel against Regeneraci6n October Emiliano Zapata reads Regeneraci6n for the first time. October 12 Pinkerton detectives raid the Regeneraci6n offices on 1 07 North Channing Avenue. Ricardo, Enrique andJuan Sarabia are imprisoned. All newspaper's equipment, including its printing presses, typewriters, and furniture, are stolen by the U . S . Authorities and sold. December Ricardo, Enrique, and Sarabia are freed on bail collected by supporters both in the U.S. And Mexico. At this time, the circulation of Regeneraci6n is between 20,000 and 30,000 copies. 1 906 January Juan Sarabia and Ricardo and Enrique Flores Magan are released on bond February 1 Regeneraci6n renews publication. Circulation is now 30, 000 March 20 Fearing that Diaz will arrange their extradition to Mexico through U.S. Authorities , Ricardo, Enrique and Juan Sarabia pay their bail and flee to Toronto, Canada. Rivera, Villarreal and Manuel Sarabia continue to publish Regeneraci6n. However, at the request of the Mexican government, U . S . postal authorities withdraw its fourth class mailing privileges. May Ricardo, Enrique and Sarabia move to Montreal after harassment from Diaz's agents in Toronto.The Mexican government offers a reward of $ 20,000 for the capture of Ricardo . May 5 On the holiday celebrating Diaz 's victory over the French, PLM clubs in Cananea hold a rally exhorting miners to form a union. June 1-4 Copper miners in Cananea, Sonora go on strike . The strike leaders are either members of local PLM clubs or supporters. At the request of the mine owner, Colonel William C. Green, 275 armed American volunteers cross the border into Mexico . During the strike, the army massacres over 1 00 Mexican workers. July 1 The Program of the Partido Liberal Mexicano (PLM) is issued from St. Louis . This program remains the platform of the PLM until it is replaced five years later by the September 2 3 , 1 9 1 1 Manifesto . Junta leaders have consulted as many PLM members throughout Mexico and the United States as possible to create this 1 906 document. This declaration of principles is the basis of Mexico's present-day progressive constitution. July 3 The PLM Club Obreros Libres is formed in Morenci, Arizona with Praxedis G. Guerrero as president . September 2 Ricardo and Juan Sarabia arrive secretly in El Paso , Texas . They join Antonio Villarreal, Prisciliano Silva, and other liberals to complete a plan for an armed uprising in Mexico. September 4 Arizona rangers raid the homes of PLM members in Douglas, Mowry, and Patagonia. The newspaper El Democrata is confiscated. Arms are found. Fifteen liberals are arrested and handed over to the Mexican authorities. They are all sent to San juan de Ulua prison . September 12 Ubrado Rivera and Aaron Lopez Manzano are arrested in St. Louis and put on a train for deportation to Mexico at the request of the Mexican authorities. They are taken as far as Ironton, Missouri when a public outcry, led by a St . Louis newspaper, forces the U . S . to stop this illegal hand-over. Instead, Rivera and Manzano are imprisoned and held incommunicado. September 15 Pinkerton agents and U . S . officials raid Regeneraci6n office, smashing its printing press . September 24 Prisciliano Silva, now in Mexico , asks Francisco I. Madero, then an unknown landowner in Coahuila, for arms . Madero refuses, claiming that he did not want to see the spilling of Mexican blood. Madero states, " Diaz is not a tyrant, a bit rigid, but not a tyrant." He later writes to his grandfather, Evaristo , to brag about having nothing to do with any revolution. September 26With a force of 30 men,Juan Jose Arredondo and Trinidad Garcia seize the main plaza of Jimenez, Coahuila. They manage to hold the town for a day after cutting the telephone wires and expropriating money from the town treasury. September 30 Hilario C . Salas and 300 men attack Acayucan, Veracruz. They nearly achieve victory, but unfortunately Salas receives a shot through the stomach. This forces the poorly armed liberals to withdraw. At the same time, groups are supposed to attack Minatitlan and Puerto Mexico . Due to bad coordination, these attacks do not occur. September 30 Ricardo flees to Los Angeles October 1 Roma.n Marin attacks Pajapan. His attack is sucessful, and his t-.... /1,I1.1""'\ 1:' ."",rof"""-f'l<"oPo,-1 1-no Pl lPrtA Mpv1rn. hnt thpv rptf"P-::I t uThpn thF'V t;;.pp ';l l':lrop ':lrnlV -- - - r -- r - - - - - " " ........ " contingent coming to the city. October 1 P.L.M forces take Ixhuatlan, Veracruz but federal soldiers drive them out. October Jesus M. Rangel leads the uprising in Camargo, Tamaulipas, but is fought off by Mexican rural police. October 19 Juan Sarabia, Cesar B. Canales, and Vicente de la Torre are arrested in Ciudad Juarez after being led into a trap by a former school friend of Sarabia. In EI Paso, U.S. Authorities raid the home of Junta leaders . Antonio I . Villarreal, Lauro Aguirre , and ]. Cano are arrested. Ricardo manages to escape by jumping from a window. In addition to the arrests, officials discover the names of PLM members and groups in Mexico as well as a subscription list for Regeneracion. These are immediately delivered to the Mexican authorities. Armed with this information, the dictatorship embarks upon the systematic repression of liberals in Mexico. Two hundred and fifty are arrested in Chihuahua alone . On their side of the border, the U.S. Authorities follow suit. November 14 Ricardo is spotted while hiding in the house of Romulo Carmona in Los Angeles . He manages to avoid arrest. November 30 Librado Rivera is brought to trial in St. Louis, Missouri, but is freed by the U . S . Commissioner. December 4 Textile workers influenced by PLM propaganda strike in Veracruz, Puebla, and Tlaxcala. 1 907 January 4 Porfirio Diaz calls for the end of the textile strike in Veracruz, Tlaxaca, and Puebla. He reopens all of the factories and orders all workers to return to their posts. Laborers in Rio Blanco , Veracruz remain on strike. January The Junta sends Mayo Indian Fernando Palomarez to Baja California to organize groups for the revolution. January 7 Sarabia, Canales, and de la Torre are brought to trial in Veracruz. All are given 7 years imprisonment, and sent to the fortress prison of San Juan de Ulua. January 8 800 striking textile workers at the Rio Blanco mill are massacred by troops under the command of General Rosalio Martinez. Flatcars full of murdered workers are hauled to the Gulf of Mexico and fed to sharks. January 18 Ricardo 's hiding place is again discovered. This time , he escapes disguised as a woman. lIe flees to earthquake-devastated San Francisco. February 26 Antonio I. Villarreal escapes as he is about to be handed over the border to the Mexican authorities in El Paso. Ricardo , still on the run, finds refuge in Sacramento, San Francisco and finally Los Angeles . A price of $ 2 5 , 000 is put on his head and l OO,OOO wanted posters with his photograph are circulated throughout the U.S. They are hung in all post offices and other places. In Los Angeles, Ricardo is joined by Antonio I. Villarreal . June 1 Ricardo and Villarreal issue the first issue of a new paper from Los Angeles. The name is changed from Regeneraci6n to Revoluci6n in an attempt to evade authorities . June 1 6 Librado Rivera arrives i n Los Angeles. June .;!..Y The Junta appoints Praxedis G. Guerrero as a Special Delegate of the Junta. He starts to organize revolutionary PLM forces along both sides of the US/Mexico border. June 30 Manuel Sarabia, Juan's cousin, is kidnapped in Douglas, Arizona . He is forcibly taken over the border into Mexico . As he is taken from his home and before he is gagged, however, he is able to shout out his name and protest against his kidnapping. Several people hear this cry. After a campaign by concerned citizens, the labor activist Mary "Mother" Jones, and the Douglas newspaper The Daily Examiner, the Mexican government is forced to hand him back to the U.S on July 1 2 . August 23 The operatives of the Furlong Detective Agency arrest Flores Mag6n, Rivera, and Villarreal without a warrant. This agency's sole purpose seems to be tracking down liberal party members in general and Flores Magan in particular. During the arrest, Flores Magan is beaten unconscious when he and Sarabia try to attract the attention of passers by. They are taken to Los Angeles county jail where they are accused of "resisting an officer." Bail is set at $ 5 , 000 each, but later withdrawn. August 24 The " detectives" return to the offices of Revoluci6n . This time, they arrest a co-worker, Modesto Diaz, and take lectures and other documents . Modesto Diaz dies later in Los Angeles jail. September John Kenneth and Ethel Duffy Turner arrive in Los Angeles . September 1 A protest meeting organized b y the International Socialist Party is held in support of Ricardo and the others. A defense committee is formed. September 26Trial of Ricardo, Rivera, and Villarreal. The charge of " resisting an officer" is dronned. It is renl aced with four new i n di ctm ents: 1 ) mllrcl 􀂽r and robbery committed in Mexico; 2) criminal libel; 3) the murder of an "unknown man" in Mexico ; 4) the violation of the neutrality laws. The first three of these are dropped. Finally, all three men are found gUilty of violating the neutrality laws. They are sentenced to be deported to Arizona where the alleged crime took place. The American socialist lawyers, Job Harriman and A. R. Holston defend the accused Mexicans . During the trial, Thomas Furlong, head of the Furlong Detective Agency, admits that the arrests took place without a warrant and that he was paid for the work by the Mexican government. September 2 7 Lazaro Gutierrez de Lara, the new editor of Revoluci6n, is arrested on direct orders of the Mexican government. November Revoluci6n , now edited by Frederico Arizmendez and Francisco Ulibarri publishes extracts from the works of Kropotkin. The editors are arrested for criminal libel. They are later freed on bail. After this , the paper is edited by Manuel Sarabia, Juan's cousin. December 22 Lawyer Job Harriman applies for a writ of habeas corpus on behalf of Lazaro Guiterrez De Lara. This is refused on the grounds that charges against him were on their way from Mexico . December 2 7 Ricardo , Rivera,Villarreal and De Lara write a "Manifesto to the American People " in which they explain the reasons for their persecution both in Mexico and the U . S . 1 908 January Manuel Sarabia is arrested and Revoluci6n is suppressed. February The " Manifesto to the American People " is published by several socialist newspapers and by Emma Goldman's Mother Earth . February 1 7 Diaz, in an interview with the American journalist J. Creelman, promises to retire in 1 9 1 0 at the end of his presidential term. He also says he will welcome an " opposition party." April Rellolucion reappears, directed by Praxedis G. Guerrero and edited by Modesto Diaz . Sprung From the Los Angeles County Jail, Ricardo founds the newspaper, Tierra y L ibertad. It runs for three issues May Modesto Diaz is arrested and the press of Revolucion is destroyed. The paper has finally been suppressed . May The first issue of Libertad y Trabajo appears in Los Angeles as a successor to RelJolucion . Fernando Palomarez and Juan Olivares, respectively veterans of the Cananea and Rio Blanco strikes , edit the paper. Junta sends delegate Francisco Manriquez to alert liberal groups in Mexico of the revolution date , ]une 2 5 . May 8 Manuel Sarabia i s extradited t o Arizona. May 30 Diaz decides to run for re-election . June Guitterez De Lara is released from prison on a legal technicality. June 13 In a letter to Enrique and Praxedis G. Guerrero , Ricardo expresses his anarchist ideals for the first time . However, he also states, " if we had called ourselves anarchists from the start, no one or at best a few would have listened to uS.Without calling ourselves anarchists, we have fired the people 's mind with hatred against the owner class and government caste ." June 18 Homes of PLM members are raided in Casas Grandes, Chihuahua after the gruup WalS inftlmned by an infurmer. Many impurtant ieuers and documents are found. June 23 Diaz's network of spies, assisted by u . s . postal officials, learns about the plans for the revolution. Diaz' soldiers and police nip it in the bud. Many liberal supporters are jailed. June 25 Prisciliano G. Silva's home in El Paso,Texas is raided byTexas Rangers. They seize 3000 rounds of ammunition and important documents, including a letter written by Ricardo to Enrique that was smuggled out of Los Angeles j ail by Ricardo's companion Maria Brousse . This letter gives details about individuals and groups who are about to start an uprising against Diaz in Mexico . June 24-25 A PLM group takes Viesca, a town in northern Coahuila. After holding the town for a day, they are forced to withdraw owing to the hostility of the local populace . Because the insurgents crossed the border from Texas, the people think they are bandits and not "real revolutionaries." June 26 FOrty PLM fighters led by Encarnacion Guerra, Benjamin Canales, and Jesus M . Rangel attack Las Vacas, Coahuila. After a bloody fight with the local garrison of 1 00 men, the liberals take the town. However, they decide to evacuate because of heavy losses. Jesus M. Rangel leads the retreat. A PLM group attacks the town of Matamoros,Tamaulipas, but the army forces them to retreat. June 3􀀥uly 1 Pcixedis G. Guerrero, Ricardo's brother Enrique, and Jose Inez Salazar lead a small liberal group on an attack of Palomas , Chihuahua. However, after a brave fight, they are forced to withdraw. JUly From about this time, U.S. left-wing journals and organizations come to thp npfp n 􀂼p of thp l mnri􀂼onpn PT .M 􀂼nok-p􀂼mpn A rtlrlp"" on thpm amI mines and work them by themselves. It ends , " . . . Liberty and wellbeing are within our grasp. The same effort and the same sacrifices that are required to raise to power a governor-that is to say a tyrant-will achieve the expropriation of the fortunes the rich keep from you. It is for you , then, to choose . Either a new governor-that is to say a new yoke-or life redeeming expropriation and the abolition of all imposition: religious, political , or any other kind . " LAND AND UBERTY! " September 27 The anti-junta propaganda from Mexico comes to a head when Antonio 1. Villarreal publishes an article in Sarabia's newspaper, Diaria del Hagar, accusing Ricardo of being a " blackmailer, swindler, coward, and a drunken pervert and scoundrel who shared his mistresses with all men of bad taste." September 29 PLM groups active in the state ofTamaulipas issue a proclama- 36 0 ing the PLM revolutionaries in Baja California as "bandits." August Jesus M. Rangel, Prisciliano and Rubin Silva, and other comrades are arrested by Madero's officers and imprisoned. During this incident, Rangel is shot and wounded. August Indians in Jalisco and peasants in Veracruz take over much land and work it communally. August A " reconstituted" Liberal Party is formed in Mexico City, together with a newspaper called Regeneracion edited by Sarabia and Antonio I. Villarreal . Ricardo refers to this paper as "Degeneracl(m ." PLM groups renew their activities in Durango and Coahuila. August 2 Juan Sarabia writes an open letter to Ricardo that is published in The New }brk Call. In it, Sarabia tells Ricardo not only that his revolutionary movement unacceptable in Mexico, but also that the people are completely unprepared for Anarchism or Socialism. August 2 7 Madero talks Zapata into laying down arms . Madero's general , Huerta, massacres Zapata's supporters . September Honore J.Jaxon , treasurer of the PLM and its representative in Europe, addresses the British Trades Union Congress in London on the Mexican situation. September 23 The junta issues a new Manifesto to replace the PLM 's 1 906 program. This new manifesto is uncompromisingly anarchist in content. It urges the peasants to expropriate the land and the workers to take over the facturie1> amI mines and work them by themselves. It ends , " . . . Liberty and wellbeing are within our grasp. The same effort and the same sacrifices that are required to raise to power a governor-that is to say a tyrant-will achieve the expropriation of the fortunes the rich keep from you. It is for you , then, to choose . Either a new governor-that is to say a new yoke-or life redeeming expropriation and the abolition of all imposition: religious, political , or any other kind . " LAND AND UBERTY! " September 27 The anti-junta propaganda from Mexico comes to a head when Antonio 1. Villarreal publishes an article in Sarabia's newspaper, Diaria del Hagar, accusing Ricardo of being a " blackmailer, swindler, coward, and a drunken pervert and scoundrel who shared his mistresses with all men of bad taste." September 29 PLM groups active in the state ofTamaulipas issue a proclama- tion urging the workers to j oin them. October 1 Madero is elected president. October Mother Jones returns from Mexico and encourages Flores Magan to make peace with Madero . Flores Magan's reaction is shocked and hostile . Mother Jones denounces him as an " unreasonable fanatic ." October 31 Francisco Vazquez Gomez, Madero's former running mate in the 1 9 1 0 elections, leads a revolt against Madero. The Vazquistas plan, the " Plan of Tacubaya," whose main author was Paulino Martinez, calls for immediate agricultural reforms, similar to those in the PLM Program of 1 906. Later, Martinez . 11 1"""7 _ . _ _ .. ... 􀀰 , _ __ __ . 􀀱.-..... ...... _􀀯 J\-'111':) '-.l.lL L...o«1:-'«'1..-«- L.7 V􀂏l"'Y""'..L .......... ..L ...... November 25 Zapata rebels against Madero and issues his " Plan de Ayala" which demands the restitution of the land to the peasants. December Yaqui Indians using the PLM motto "Tierra y Libertad" take possession of land in the Yaqui Valley, Sonora, and work it in common . December 2 While organizing a liberal army, Los Abanderados Rojos, Fernando Palomarez and other comrades are arrested in El Paso ,Texas by a force of Texas Rangers aided by the chief of Madero's secret service. Later, U . S . Authorities sentence Palomarez to 1 3 months imprisonment for violating the neutrality laws. December 5 Madero states that Zapata's Plan de Ayala is crazy because it is too radical. 1 9 1 2 February 26 Madero appoints Jesus Flores Magan Secretary of Governance. March PLM groups renew their activities in Coahuila, Tamaulipas, Baja California, and Sonora. March 2 European anarchist journals, such as Le L ibertaire and Freedom , enthusiastically support the Junta and publish many articles in their favor and on the Mexican situation in general. However, R. Forment in Jean Grave 's Les Temps Nou veaux attacks Ricardo and the PLM He accuses them of not being anarchists and that the Mexican social revolution existed in their minds only. March 25 Pascual Orozco , with a land program similar to the PLM's, revolts against Madero . Many of his military leaders are PLM members like Cesar E. Canales , Jose Inez Salazar, and Lazaro Alanis. He is defeated in May and driven out of Ciudad Juarez on August 20. March 29 Ricardo and Enrique Flores Magan, and we. Owen publish an open l etter to Jean Grave in answer to the attack made on them in Les Temps Noul 'e(( {{x. April Peter Kropotkin defends Ricardo Flores Magan in an article published in I�es Timlps Nouveaux. June 4-25 The Junta members are put on trial in Los Angeles. Attorneys for the prosecution bribe many witnesses to perjure themselves or threaten them with imprisonment. During the trial , most of the prosecution witnesses do perjure the mselves. One of them is even a spy for the Mexican government. Despite this, the Junta spokesmen are given 1 0 months imprisonment each for violating the neutrality laws. When the sentence becomes known , PL\1 members and sympathizers lead a mass demonstration outside the courthouse . Police using their clubs violently break up the protest . Many are arrested and "" outKlt:d, including Ricardo's companion and her daughter. While the Junta are imprisoned on McNeil Island prison, Regeneracion is run by Antonio de P. Arauj o, Bias Lara,Teodoro Gaytan, Alberto Tellez,}uan Rincon, Trinidad ViIlarn:al, and W C . Owen. June 22 LUIS Mendez, Juan Francisco Moncaleano, and Jacinto Huitron form the G rupo LUi in Mexico City. Moncaleano , a schoolteacher and organizer of the stone cutters ' union, also forms a modern school based on Spanish anarchist Francisco Ferrer's Escuela Moderna. July 4 The prisoners are spirited out of Los Angeles jail and sent to McNeil Island, Washington for a 23 month term. July 15 Gro upo Luz founds 1IS own newspaper Luz with Moncaleano as editor. August 5 LUI publishes an article written by Moncaleano supporting Ricardo. September 1 1 Madero expels Moncalcano from Mexico for his support of Ricardo . September 22 The syndicalist group Casa del Obrero Mundial is founded in Mexico City. The founding members indude Jacinto Huitron and Luis Mendez. Lazaro Gutierrez de Lara, Manuel Sarabia, and de la Vega, then members of the Mexican Socialist Party, also help out. December In a rare European protest, two military units in Portugal disobey orders for 24 hours against the imprisonment of PLM Junta leaders. Juan F. Montero, a long standing PLM member, joins the Yaqui Indians in the Yaqui Valley, Sonora after being freed from Hermosillo jail where he was being 1 9 1 3 February 3 J. F. Moncaleano and Romulo S. Carmona, Enrique Flores Magan 's father-in-law, found the Casa del Obrero Internacional in Los Angeles. A Ferrer school and the editorial offices of Regeneraci6n occupy the same building as the Casa . Weekly meetings are also held there. February Jesus M. Rangel and Jose Guerra visit Zapata as special envoys of the Junta. dictatorial power. March Several witnesses from Ricardo's trial sign affidavits reversing their testimonies for the prosecution and admitting their perjuries. These affidavits are published in Regeneracion . March 2 7 Venustiano Carranza issues his Plan de Guadalupe which refuses to recognize Huerta. The civil war begins. Zapata and Francisco "Pancho " Villa support Carranza. April 1 7 Mexican clergy contribute $20 million to help maintain dictator Huerta in power. May 1 The first May Day demonstration ever held in Mexico City is organized by the Casa del Obrero Mundial. May 8 Panuco, Veracruz is taken by a PLM colurrm under Viciento Salazar. May 24 Inspired by several affidavits, the staff of Regeneraci6n appeals to President Wilson to p ardon Ricardo and the other imprisoned Junta members. Wilson refuses. June 2 The Casa del Obrero Mundial moves towards anarcho-syndicalism when its members issue a manifesto condemning any participation in political action. Instead, the group adopts " Direct Action" as its method of struggle . August Lucio Blanco, one of Carranza's generals, starts to distribute land to the peasants in Matamoros. Carranza demands his dismissal. September 13 Jesus M . Rangel, now living in Texas, and C. Cline, an American LWW member, along with fourteen Mexican comrades , try to cross the U.S. border into Mexico to fight against Huerta. Before they reach the border, however, the local sheriff fires upon them, shooting one of the Mexicans in the back. A fight ensues . The Mexicans take the sheriff prisoner, but release him on written assurance that they will not be molested again. The following day, they are attacked again, this time by a stronger force. One u.s. sheriff and two Mexicans die. One of these Mexicans, Juan Rincon, had been on the editorial staff of Regeneracion .The rest of the liberals are captured. Rangel and the others are held incommunicado in prison until their trial. They all receive heavy prison sentences. Rangel is given 99 years. Two comrades are later murdered in prison. November 24 Libertarian schoolteacher and PLM memher Margarita Ortega is shot hy government troops in Mexicali , Baja California. 1 9 1 4 January 19 Ricardo and Enrique Flores Magan, Librado Rivera and Anselmo Figueroa arc freed from McNeil Island prison. Figueroa soon dies from the tuberculosis that he contracted at McNeil. March Some memhers of the Casa del Obrero Mundial, including LUIS Mendez, Antonio Diaz Soto y Gama, and Prudencio R. Casales, leave the group to join Zapata. May 18 Huerta's police close down The Casa del Obrero Mundial. May PLM groups are now active in Sonora, where Yaqui Indians aided by Juan E Montero control several towns hetween the Yaqui and Mayo rivers. In Durango , Domingo and Benjamin Arrieta give expropriated land over to the peasants. In Chihuahua, San Luis Potosi, Zacatecas, Mexico , Michoacan, Guanajuato , G uerrero and Jalisco, PLM groups are active. In all these states, land has been expropriated to the peasants. June 12 In a letter to A. Shapiro, the Secretary of the International Anarchist Congress, which is to be held in London from August 28-September 2, Ricardo says that international anarchists must make up their minds about the Mexican Revolution by either supporting it fully or by condemning it. He also proposes that the PLM should be represented at the Congress. In fact, the Mexican question is going to be discussed at the Congress, but the outbreak of the First World War prevents the Congress from occurring. July Huerta is driven from power.Venustiano Carranza becomes the self-styled " First Chief" of the Constitutionalist Army. August Ricardo and Enrique Flores Magan, and Librado Rivera arrive in Los Angeles after a west coast speaking tour to raise funds. August The First World War breaks out in Europe . Like many other anarchists, Ricardo Flores Magan believed that the universal slaughter will result in a social revolution in all the belligerent countries. He writes: "Behind the catastrophe, Liberty smiles ." October 10 Revolutionary leaders hold a convention at Aguascalientes to unite the country after Huerta flees Mexico. Under the direction of Antonio I . Villarreal, now one o f Carranza's generals, the convention elects Eulalio Gutierrez as the provisional president. Carranza, who refuses to p articipate in the convention, also refuses to recognize Gutierrez. November The forces of Villa and Zapata enter Mexico City. November 7 The Junta issues an open letter to the Workers of the United ing class. December The publication of Regeneraci6n is suspended because of its financial situation. 1 9 1 5 January 6 Carranza issues a decree restoring the ejidos, communally worked land around each village , to the peasants. February 1 7 On Carranza's behalf, General Obregon signs a pact with the Casa del Obrero Mundia1. This agreement requires the Casa to organize "Red Battalions " to fight against Zapata and Villa. In return, the Casa will be free to organize branches in all the " liberated" towns. June 1 4Anselmo L. Figueroa dies in Palomas, Arizona as a result of his recent imprisonment. The day before he dies, he is handing out PLM propaganda on the streets. Ricardo and Enrique Flores Magan, Librado Rivera, their families, and other comrades working on Regeneraci6n rent a small farm in Edendale, a rural suburb of Los Angeles where they live and work communally on the land. October 19 U . S . recognizes the bloody Carranza regime. October 29 Regeneraci6n resumes publication. It is printed on an old hand press. The editorial office is a barn on the Edendale farm. November 30 To avoid the strikes that railroad workers call to protest being paid in depreciating paper currency, Carranza drafts them all into the Constitutionalist Army. December 15 Ricardo's play "Tierra y Libertad" is first staged in Los Angeles. Ricardo is too sick to attend. 1 9 1 6 February 18 Ricardo and Enrique are arrested in their Edenda1c home. During the arrest, Enrique is so badly beaten that he has to be taken to the hospital . U.S. Postal authorities accuse them of sending material through the post that incites others to "murder, arson and treason." William C. Owen is also indicted, but he manages to escape to New York where he boards a ship to England. The articles in question are condemnations of Carranza, including "To Carranza's soldiers " and "The Reforms of Carranza." In the former article, Ricardo tells the soldiers fighting in the Constitutionalist Army not to surrender their arms but to keep them and, if necessary, to use them against their officers . Immediately, a defense committee is formed to raise bail money. However, the judge refuses to grant bail, despite Ricardo 's poor health. By now,Wilson has recognized the Carranza regime . March 4 Rep,t'lzeraci()n Number 228 is issued. MaJ' 1 Carranza is inaugurated as the President of Mexico. May 21 Trial of Ricardo and Enrique . Ricardo is so ill that he is not able to go to the courthouse . Instead. Enrique has to speak for both of them. Despite thiS, the judge refuses Enrique the right to read a defense statement, claiming that it is a "political" document. Duc to his pour health, Ricardo is sentenced to 11. months and a fine of $ 1 000 . Enrique receives three years and a fine of $ 3000 . June 26 Ricardo is released on bail pending an appeal. Anarchists Emma Goldman ami Akxander Berkman raise the bail . July 1 Enrique is released on bail . July u.s. postal authorities revoke the second-class mailing privileges of Regeneracion , doubling the subscription cost. July 31 Electrical workers in Mexico City declare a general strike after a promise of a pay raise and better working conditions are not fulfilled. The workers refuse to call off the strike. In retaliation, Carranza orders the closing of the Casa del Obrero Mundial and the arrest of its members. August 1 Carranza revives an 1 862 law dealing with public disorder that threatens striking workers with the death penalty. Many workers are arrested and held in prison for months on the charge of rebellion. Only one is put on trial. He is sentenced to death but is later reprieved. August 2 The Casa del Obrero Mundial ceases to exist. August 26 Ricardo writes his most bitter attack on Carranza in Regeneraci6n: " Carranza Despoils the Sheep of its Wool." December 1 6 Constitutional Convention meets . Mexico's new progressive constitution draws its most radical ideas from the PLM Program of 1 906. 1 9 1 7 Ricardo and Enrique Flores Magon and Librado Rivera manage to keep Regen- Ricardo Flores Magon speaks at many meetings in the Los Angeles area despite the ill health that forces him to stop writing for a time . April 6 U . S . enters World War I . June Enrique Flores Magon separates from Regeneraci6n due to a family squabble. June 15 Oppressive U . S . Espionage Act passed. September Juan E Montero heads Yaqui Indian guerrillas fighting against Carranza in Sonora. 1 9 1 8 January Regeneraci6n still manages to appear despite a reduced readership and the suppression of many radical newspapers. The j ournal no longer has an English section. Ricardo wants to restart this page under the editorship of his step-daughter Lucia Norman, but this never happens. February 2 Lazaro Gutierrez de Lara is shot by a government firing squad on the orders of Plutarco Elias Calles during the suppression of a miners' strike in Cananea. March 1 6 Ricardo Flores Magon and Librado Rivera publish a manifesto in Regeneraci6n to the "Anarchists of the World and the Workers in General," saying that the social Revolution is near and that it is the duty of all anarchists to work towards this with all their strength and ability. This is the last edition of Regeneraci6 n . March 21 Flores Magon and Rivera are arrested for the March 1 6 Manifesto, even though it was published in Spanish. The US government charges them under the Espionage Act with sedition. Bail for Ricardo is set at $ 50 , 000. May 16 Enrique loses his appeal and is sent to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas Penitentiary for three years. JUlle 13 Ricardo Flores Magan's companion Maria and other PLM activists are arrested for violations of the Espionage Act. August 15 Ricardo Flores Magan and Rivera are sentenced to 20 years and 1 5 years respectively for sedition . During their trial, which is held in camera, the judge tells the jury "the activity of these men has been a constant violation of the law, all the laws . They have violated both the law of god and the law of man." They are taken to McNeil Island penitentiary to serve their sentence. 1 9 1 9 April 1 0 Zapata is assassinated on the orders of Carranza. November Because of the ill health that has afflicted him at least since 1 9 1 6, Ricardo is transferred to Leavenworth prison, Kansas. His only means of expression now are the three weekly letters he is allowed to write . 1 920 May 21 Carranza is assassinated by a supporter of Obregon. August Rivera is transferred to Leavenworth. October 28 Juan Sarabia dies. November Largely thanks to Flores Magan and Rivera's old Liberal Party comrade, Antonio Diaz Soto y Gama, now a member of the House of Deputies, the Mexican government under President Obregon votes to give the two men a pension . Antonio 1. VillalTeai is a minister of agriculture in this government. Regarding the proposed pension, Ricardo writes to a comrade : " . . . I am an Anarchist, and could not receive without shame and remorse money that had b\:<.:11 stolen by lhe guvernment from the poor. If the money had come from the workers , T would have accepted it with pride and pleasure, because they are my brothers . But coming from the State after being demanded-according to my belief-from the people, that money would burn my hands and would fill my heart with remorse." 1 92 1 April Ricardo's lawyer, Harry Weinberger applies for Flores Magan's release on health grounds. He is suffering from diabetes and several respiratory complaints. Worst of all he is afflicted with cataracts and is nearly blind. The U . S . Attorney General refuses this appeal, saying that there is nothing wrong with Flores Magon's health that can not be treated in prison. Yet the prison doctor does little to help him. June The Mexican government instructs its Washington embassy to intervene on behalf of Flores Magan and Rivera. September 13 After taking a collection, Mexico City's Union of Graphical Workers sends Flores Magan and Rivera $ 2 4 . 50 each. 1 922 February The anarcho-syndicalist Confederacion General de Trabajadores is founded in Mexico City. 􀁲' .. , .. : ::::􀇷!::;-: 􀁳':' ��p􀏦